| Figure of Speech |
A figure of speech, sometimes termed a rhetorical, or elocution, is a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language. Figures of speech are often used and crafted for emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use. Note that not all theories of meaning necessarily have a concept of "literal language" (see literal and figurative language). Under theories that do not, figure of speech is not an entirely coherent concept. As an example of the figurative use of a word, consider the sentence, I am going to crown you. It may mean: I am going to place a literal crown on your head. I am going to symbolically exalt you to the place of kingship. I am going to punch you in the head with my clenched fist. I am going to put a second draught piece on top of your draught piece to signify that it has become a king (as in the game of draughts/checkers). Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two main categories: schemes and tropes. Schemes (from the Greek schēma, form or shape) are figures of speech in which there is a deviation from the ordinary or expected pattern of words. For example, the phrase, "John, my best friend" uses the scheme known as apposition. Tropes (from the Greek tropein, to turn) involve changing or modifying the general meaning of a term. An example of a trope is the use of irony, which is the use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So, are they all, honorable men"). During the Renaissance, a time when scholars in every discipline had a passion for classifying all things, writers expended a great deal of energy in devising all manner of classes and sub-classes of figures of speech. Henry Peacham, for example, in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577) enumerated 184 different figures of speech. For the sake of simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not attempt further sub-classification (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Each figure links to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical devices, which are similar in many ways. Schemes accumulation: Summarization of previous arguments in a forceful manner adnominatio: Repetition of a word with a change in letter or sound alliteration: A series of words that begin with the same letter or sound alike anacoluthon: A change in the syntax within a sentence anadiplosis: Repetition of a word at the end of a clause at the beginning of another anaphora: The repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses anastrophe: Inversion of the usual word order anticlimax: the arrangement of words in order of decreasing importance antimetabole: Repetition of words in successive clauses, in reverse order antistrophe: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses antithesis: The juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas aposiopesis: Breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect apostrophe: Directing the attention away from the audience and to a personified abstraction, either present or not apposition: The placing of two elements side by side, in which the second defines the first assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse asteismus: Facetious or mocking answer that plays on a word asyndeton: Omission of conjunctions between related clauses cacophony: The juxtaposition of words producing a harsh sound chiasmus: Reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses climax: The arrangement of words in order of increasing importance consonance: The repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse dystmesis: A synonym for tmesis ellipsis: Omission of words enallage: The substitution of forms that are grammatically different, but have the same meaning enthymeme: Informal method of presenting a syllogism epanalepsis: Repetition of a word at the beginning and end of a clause epistrophe: The counterpart of anaphora hendiadys: Use of two nouns to express an idea when the normal structure would be a noun and a modifier hendiatris: Use of three nouns to express one idea hypallage: Changing the order of words so that they are associated with words normally associated with others hyperbaton: Schemes featuring unusual or inverted word order isocolon: Use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses internal rhyme : Using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence kenning: A metonymic compound where the terms together form a sort of synechdoche non sequitur: a statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding parallelism: The use of similar structures in two or more clauses paraprosdokian: Unexpected ending or truncation of a clause parenthesis: Insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence paroemion: A resolute alliteration in which every word in a sentence or phrase begins with the same letter parrhesia: Speaking openly or boldly, or apologising for doing so (declaring to do so) perissologia: The fault of wordiness pleonasm: The use of superfluous or redundant words polyptoton: Repetition of words derived from the same root polysyndeton: Repetition of conjunctions pun: When a word or phrase is used in two different senses synchysis: Interlocked word order synesis: An agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form synonymia: The use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence tautology: Redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice tmesis: Division of the elements of a compound word Tropes allegory: An extended metaphor in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject allusion: An indirect reference to another work of literature or art anacoenosis: Posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker antanaclasis: A form of pun in which a word is repeated in two different senses anthimeria: The substitution of one part of speech for another, often turning a noun into a verb anthropomorphism: applying human qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena antiphrasis: A word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony antonomasia: The substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa aphorism: A tersely phrased statement of a truth or opinion, an adage apophasis: Invoking an idea by denying its invocation aporia: Deliberating with oneself, often with the use of rhetorical questions apostrophe: Addressing a thing, an abstraction or a person not present archaism: Use of an obsolete, archaic, word(a word used in olden language, e.g.-shakespear's language) auxesis: A form of hyperbole, in which a more important sounding word is used in place of a more descriptive term catachresis: A mixed metaphor (sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault) circumlocution: "Talking around" a topic by substituting or adding words, as in euphemism or periphrasis commiseration: Evoking pity in the audience. denominatio: Another word for metonymy epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue. erotema: Synonym for rhetorical question euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis hypophora: Answering one's own rhetorical question at length hysteron proteron: Reversal of anticipated order of events innuendo: Having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning litotes: Emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite malapropism: Using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar meiosis: Use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something metalepsis: Referring to something through reference to another thing to which it is remotely related metaphor: An implied comparison of two things metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth paralipsis: Drawing attention to something while pretending to pass it over paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used pathetic fallacy: Using a word that refers to a human action on something non-human periphrasis: Substitution of a word or phrase for a proper name personification/prosopopoeia/anthropomorphism: Attributing a personality to some impersonal object praeteritio: Another word for paralipsis procatalepsis: Refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument prolepsis: Another word for procatalepsis proslepsis: An extreme form of paralipsis in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic rhetorical question: Asking a question as a way of asserting something. Or asking a question not for the sake of getting an answer but for asserting something (or as for in a poem for creating a poetic effect). simile: An explicit comparison between two things syllepsis: A form of pun, in which a single word is used to modify two other words, with which it normally would have differing meanings synecdoche: A form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole synesthesia: The description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another. transferred epithet: The placing of an adjective with what appears to be the incorrect noun truism: a self-evident statement tricolon crescens: A combination of three elements, each increasing in size zeugma: a figure of speech related to syllepsis, but different in that the word used as a modifier is not compatible with one of the two words it modifies zoomorphism: applying animal characteristics to humans or gods |
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